Updated December 1, 2000
Footnotes
[1] This is a revised version of a presentation at The Symposium
on Megaliths and Social Geography, Falköping, 14 May, 1994.
[2] e.g. Haggett
1972:322 ff.
[3] Baldia 1982a and b.
[4] Even though megalithic tombs have been recorded and mapped
for centuries, the accuracy of distribution maps varies widely.
(cf. Bägerfeldt 1993:48 with Midgley 1992 Fig. 111 and 121, or Beier
1991b Fig. 1).
[5] It should be obvious that paths, roads and waterways also
existed in areas where no megalithic tombs are found. However, for the
geographic area under discussion, megalithic tombs are probably associated with
the main thoroughfares, a view shared by Bakker (1991).
[6] Häusler 1992, 1994 (However, Häusler does not negate the
traditional notion that megalithic architecture and mass interments are an
alien culture trait introduced into the TRB from the west.)
[7] Coles and Coles 1989:65-72, L. Larsson 1989 (Note that L.
Larsson does not support my view that megalithic chambers are an autochthonous
development, verbal communication 14 and 15 May, 1994).
[8] The tomb typology used here is based largely on the
nomenclature developed by archaeologists, such as Sprockhoff and Schuldt. In
this typology the singular and the plural form of dolmen are the same,
consequently I adhere to this practice, reserving the plural dolmens for
non-TRB chambers, where the term often denotes an entirely different
architecture. However, I have substituted primeval dolmen for the German
Urdolmen.
[9] T. Madsen 1980. (However, the skeleton within the cist
was dated to the Late Neolithic.) B.C. = calibrated, b.c. = uncalibrated
radiocarbon date.
[10] T. Madsen 1982,
1990; Skaarup 1983.
[11] T. Madsen
1990:29-30.
[12] cf. Aner 1963,
1968.
[13] cf. Bakker
1992:68.
[14] e.g. Skaarup
1990:75.
[15] Bakker
1992:68; Hoika 1990:86; Laux 1990 Fig 11-12, 1991 Map 6-7.
[16] e.g. Laux
1991:82
[17] This notion contradicts the traditional view, which
sees gallery-graves influenced by, or directly derived from French (western)
counterparts (e.g. Bergmann 1971; Kappel 1978; Beier 1991a:228; Laux 1991,
1992; Menke 1993; Schindler 1967; Schrickel 1966, 1976).
[18] The notion that gallery-graves with passage-grave-like
side-entrances (Type Rimbeck, cf. Laux 1991: 79, Fig. 26,1) are later than
those with front entrance could support this hypothesis (Günther 1978, 1979a,
1979b, 1980a, 1980b; Günther and Czaenetzki 1976; Laux 1990, 1991), but the
physical evidence for such side-entrances is not always clearly preserved, the
ceramic and architectural chronology and, therefore, the chronological
relationship between the various size tombs still needs to be worked out. For
example, the location of the entrance of Henglarn II is highly uncertain and
this supposed side-entrance tomb is shorter than the front-entrance tombs of
Ateln I and Etteln (Günther 1980b:151 Fig. 5).
[19] e.g. Bakker 1979:148-158, 1980, 1992:68; Laux
1979, 1990, 1991.
[20] Some archaeologists see a dual origin in the TRB,
arising from the Danubian farming cultures and the Mesolithic hunter-gatherer
population (e.g. Beier 1991a, Häusler 1992, Hoika 1990, Zápotocký
1992:202-204). The precise social organization is open to debate (cf. Körner
and Laux 1980; T. Madsen 1990:36 with additional references; Randsborg 1975; J.
Voss 1980a, b, 1982; Zápotocký 1992:209).
[21] Hodder and Orton 1976, Orton 1980, Renfrew and Bahn
1991/93, Wilkinson 1992: 292-93 with references to the mathematical
methodology applied here.
[22] Search method: Krieging with maximum smoothing and octant
search using Surfer by Golden Software.
[23] cf. Bägerfeldt 1993:111, 112-114 (unnumbered figures).
[24] Bägerfeldt
1993:115.
[25] e.g. Strömberg
1980:133 Fig. 1.
[26] Neither Strömberg (1980: 133 Fig. 1), nor
Bägerfeldt (1993:48) illustrate tombs on the Swedish side. Hansen (1993a:3)
also has no tombs on the northeasternmost tip of Sjælland. However, on Sjælland
the tombs form a largely linear pattern southwest of Helsingør, perhaps
suggesting that the harbors were to the north and south of the modern city.
[27] A similar situation may exist in Hamburg, where tombs are
conspicuously absent.
[28] Bägerfeldt 1993:109, Hyenstrand 1989.
[29] Compare Hyenstrand 1989 Fig. 5 and 6, as well as
Strömberg 1980:133 Fig. 1.
[30] cf. Nielsen
and Nielsen 1990.
[31] Öland has one dolmen and three passage-graves (Bägerfeldt
1993: 70)
[32] However, the northeastern-most tomb is an
extended-dolmen in a small sub-megalithic enclosure located near Tofta,
Gotland, (e.g. Bägerfeldt 1993:157 bottom).
[33] Sjögren and Persson personal communication 15 May,
1994.
[34] c.f. Bägerfeldt 1993:109 (Dolmen Types 1 and 2).
[35] Tomb 93, Årstad 88 (Bägerfeldt and Kihlstedt
1985).
[36] Tomb 92, Hunnestad 6 and Tomb 5, Skee 272
(Bägerfeldt and Kihlstedt 1985).
[37] cf. Hyenstrand 1989 and 1979 with Bägerfeldt 1993:70.
The latter lists three dolmen and 203 passage-graves for Falbygden and one
additional passage-grave for the remainder of Väster Götland.
[38] cf. Hoika 1987.
[39] German ß = ss in English.
[40] Laux 1991
Map 1, 1990 Fig. 3.
[41] The kind and amount of road maintenance is open to
speculation. Goldmann argued for a need to maintain the transportation network,
especially waterways, in the east German wetland regions during the Bronze Age
based on historical evidence (1981 and a presentation at Jahrestagung des
Nordwestdeutschen Verbands für Altertumsforschung, Hannover, Germany, September
1981). He also suggested that the same could have been true during the
Neolithic in the ensuing private discussion.
[42] Behrens 1973:202-203.
[43] The parallel location of the tombs could indicate a
northeast-southwest road (similar to the one at Grundoldendorf-Bliedersdorf).
Mound 62 (Grave E) is dated to 3140±45 b.c. which would make it
about the same age as Barkær, i.e. ca. 3900 B.C., but the better preserved
Mound 86 (Grave W) is dated to 2215±45 b.c. (Pleinerová 1981).
[44] cf. Knöll 1984:133 with references.
[45] Jankowska
and Wis'lan'ski 1991, Nielsen and Nielsen 1990.
[46] Jankowska and Wis'lan'ski 1991:60, Midgley 1985 Fig. 4.
[47] cf. Bakker 1979 for additional discussions of the Elbe
fords.
[48] For the research history and references see Bakker 1976,
1991, Hoika 1987. U.Fischer (1956:84) first suggested a connection between tomb
alignments and roads west of the Elbe in Germany's Altmark.
[49]
e.g. Bergmann 1971:16-19; Kappel 1979:7-24.
[50] Asmus 1957 Plate
21, 2.
[51] Zich 1994
Fig. 8 and 10.
[52] The long-mounds LA 17, 3, 4, 137, 37 are positioned in a
mildly curving alignment running northeast to southwest. According to Zich 75
mounds are aligned in a 4 km long and maximally 500 m wide chain. A total
of 90 mounds and other sites have been recorded (Zich 1994 Fig. 1-3).
[53] Preliminary observations on the roads of
Groundoldendorf-Bliedersdorf and Barendorf were presented in 1985 (Baldia
1985).
[54] During two separate surveys in May 1994 I observed
that the entire area, including the mound fill and the fields around the tombs,
was covered with flint chips of various colors, often exhibiting cortex.
According to Laux (verbal communication 27 May, 1994), the wide range of color
is typical for local flint. Heat treated flint was found not only near the
tombs, but also at some distance away in the surrounding fields, suggesting
that it did not come just from the inside of the chambers. Another flint
concentration is located roughly one kilometer to the south and more or less in
line with the tombs.
[55] The route is marked by a passage-grave, several
Bronze Age tumuli and other tombs, as well as a wooden track. All focus on
a roughly 1000 m long marsh narrow, providing the best bog crossing from
the bottom land (the Alte Land) on the Elbe. The only other crossing is at
Bremervörde (Tempel 1992:33).
[56] For the location of Hemmoor and other flint sources
mentioned in this text cf. Bakker 1979:80 Fig. 42.
[57] e.g. Bakker 1976 and 1991.
[58] Stahlström 1935. (Unfortunately the work was not available
at the time of writing so that no comparisons between Sahlström's conclusions
and my observations were possible.)
[59] cf. Bägerfeldt 1993:247, Englund and Sjögren 1994
Fig. 1 and 5, Kælas 1981 Fig. 11.
[60] Olsbo 1986. I thank Olsbo for sharing his ideas and
providing a tour of the area.
[61] Bägerfeldt 1993:235 and 236 (unnumbered map). Bägerfeldt
has interpreted the Falköping tomb alignments and the chamber architecture as
giant exercises in geometry. (Bägerfeldt 1993:234-251; Blomquist 1989:34-35).
[62] Persson verbal communication 15 May, 1994.
[63] The passage-graves near Hammah were later completely
covered by marshland (Wegewitz 1949:22-26 with references).
[64] Unfortunately, the mapping of the tomb locations on the
northwest side of the bog is not identical (cf. Fig. 7 and 19).
[65] Bägerfeldt (1993:160-166) summarized the Swedish
archaeo-astronomy research.
[66] Visual inspection of the Sieben Steinhäuser
(Sprockhoff 806-810), near Fallingbostel, Lüneburg Heath, on 12 May, 1994
confirms that Chamber E (which I take to be the later tomb) is sufficiently
offset to permit sighting without interference by Long-mound D (the
typologically earlier tomb). I am indebted to Nicole Kremers, Walsrode, for the
opportunity to inspect the tombs.
[67] In the Flintbeck LA 3 long-mound the earliest dolmen
(I-III) are facing in the opposite direction (roughly south southeast) of the
large extended Dolmen IV of Phase 7, for which the northwestern extension of
the mound was created. It is tempting to assume that in time the road was also
changed from the southwest side to the northwest side of the mound. However,
during questioning at the Megalith Symposium Zich negated the possibility that
the wagon tracks found under the long-mound addition continued on the other
side of Dolmen IV, thus eliminating any implication that the tracks might be
evidence of a road that passed behind the original mound.
[68] Oldendorf, Kr. Lüneburg (Sprockhoff 1975 Fig. 12
683-686), Horndorf (Sprockhoff 1975 Fig. 14 694-697), Hammah (Wegewitz
1949 Fig. 22), Haaßel, Kr. Uelzen (Wegewitz 1949 Fig. 3, after von
Estorf and Hagen 1843), Groß Berßen (Schlicht 1972 Fig. 1 and 2; Laux 1991
Fig, 16), Heiligenhafen/Putlos and Kröss (Sprockhoff 1966 Text Plate A1
and B1, Fig. 16, Map 28 bottom; Hoika 1987 fold out map), the
Schmalensee-Bornhöved-Tarbeck tombs (Sprockhoff 1966 Map 25 and 35), Sachsenwald
(e.g. Midgley 1985 Fig. 9, after Sprockhoff 1954).
[69] T. Madsen 1982 Fig. 8 and 11, 1990 Fig. 5. The tombs of
East Central Jutland appear to line roads that pass in the vicinity of the T.
Madsen's central sites (Baldia 1985).
[70] cf. Midgley 1985:39 Fig. 7 (after Wis'lan'ski).
[71] Baldia 1985.
[72] Schwellnus 1979.
[73] The alignments are peculiarly close to the modern
intersection (observations based on a map provided by Löwen 13 July, 1994).
[74] Personal observations 26-27 May, 1994. For site locations
see Kappel 1978:49 Fig. 44 and Schwellnus 1979.
[75] Laux 1984, 1989, 1990, 1991.
[76] e.g. Knöll 1984:131-32; Laux 1984:42-43, 1989:112-124,
1990:191, 194, 1991:58-59.
[77] cf. J.Müller 1987 for C14 statistics on allees couvertes,
Beier 1991a:183a List 24 for German gallery-grave dates.
[78] Dates for barbed wire beakers derived from Bakker
1992:xii.
[79] Schindler 1967:48 Fig. 5, 8. (The collared flask sherd was
not available for inspection during my visit at the Trier Landesmuseum on 30
May, 1994, but Dr. Löhr made the original excavation reports available and
supplied pertinent literature and other useful information.)
[80] Boujot and Cassen 1993.
[81] The evidence stems from the Denekamp flat-grave, Brindley's
Horizon 7 (Bakker 1992:188 Fig. 27b).
[82] The impression is based on field observations at
Schankweiler and a tour of Halle-Dölauer Heide guided by Dr. Häusler in
May 1994.
[83] Single Grave culture dates based on Bakker 1992:xii.
[84] For the Belgian tombs cf. Huysecom 1982 (not available for
this research), Klok 1979.
[85] e.g. Baldia 1978. Related flint exploitation occurred
at Mheer-Grote Bosch, Banholt, Rullen, Remersdaal, St. Pietersvoeren
and St. Martensvoeren. A site near Valkenburg was radiocarbon dated at
2400-2250 b.c. (Felder 1978).
[86] e.g.
De Grooth 1991:164, Heege 1989:213.
[87] Schrickel 1976.
[88] von Berg 1991.
[89] Beier 1991a:106 Map 7, 1991b:417 Fig. 1.
[90] The construction of the masonry pillars at
Erwitte-Völlinghausen, Westphalia suggests imitation of megalithic side stones
(Trier 1993:35).
[91] Beck and Bocquet 1983.
[92] Czarnetzki 1978:238.
[93] e.g. Beier 1991a with references.
[94] Menke 1993:303.
[95] Menke 1993:313 Table 2.
[96] Bancroft-Hunt 1992:61-62.
[97] Bancroft-Hunt 1992:73.
[98] Bancroft-Hunt 1992:75.
[99] Randsborg 1975, 1979.
[100] e.g. Bakker 1992:58, Skaarup 1990:85 and
Fig. 13, Strömberg 1971:358 ff.
[101] cf. Bakker 1992 Tables 3-6.
[102] Bakker 1992.